Literature and imagination Essay

In â€Å"Critical Approaches to Literature†, David Daiches has said that the imagination, in its primary manifestation, is â€Å"the great ordering principle†, an agency which enables us both â€Å"to discriminate and to order, to separate and to synthesize, and thus makes perception possible†, for without it, we would have only a collection of meaningless sensory data. Literary theory and poetry materialize concurrently, for poets have a strong tendency to form opinions about their craft and to use these opinions as part of the message of their poems. Imagination is undoubtedly inherent in literature, the prime component in any work of art, but this view has been a cause of debate since the dawn of literature and criticism. As with most dissentions and philosophy regarding literature and its attendant features, the first records of this debate are to be found in the germinal works of Aristotle and Plato. Writing at a time when the poet was venerated for his work, and the philosopher persecuted for his, it is but natural that Plato would react negatively towards poetry. He regarded it as being fundamentally unsound and his view of imagination was much the same, since the imagination is the wellspring from which poetry arises. Imagination was inspirational and emotional, and he did not agree or identify with it for he did not find it logical. Aristotle, on the other hand, acknowledged that art represented reality, and that imagination was an important element of the structuring and creating of art. Horace, while admitting that poets utilized â€Å"fiction and often mingled facts with fancy†, put forth a synthesis of Aristotle and Plato’s views. According to him, the end function of poetry is to please and instruct, â€Å"†¦ a mixture of pleasure and profit appeals to every reader†¦ † and hence, imagination took on a fairly central position. John Dryden, a Seventeenth Century liberal and neo- classical critic, acknowledged imagination as â€Å"inspiration breath’d into man by God. † Increasingly we observe that, as it is investigated down the ages, the primary human faculty of imagination becomes inseparable from poetry- Dryden acknowledged both the didactic and aesthetic nature of poetry. The term ‘Fancy†, so commonly used, was coined by him. Pope, in accordance to the vigorous structural formalism of the Augustans, declares that imagination was â€Å"native†, but that it should be kept under control, for there was a necessity for decorum. In the Nineteenth Century, the issue of imagination became one of utmost significance, mostly due to the theorizing of Wordsworth, and more significantly, of Coleridge. While imagination, as a primary and unique faculty of the human psyche and consciousness, was never debated, both poets managed to convey its indisputable significance in poetry. In the Seventeenth Century, the writer became of soul importance- the readers reacted to the experience of emotion with delight. This ‘delight’, the Romantics stressed, was the prime objective of their poetry, but was not achieved by mechanical application of rules, but by the strength of the imagination. An early and somewhat haphazard attempt on the part of Wordsworth to discriminate between ‘imagination’ (â€Å"Impressive effects out of simple elements†), and ‘fancy’ (â€Å"Pleasure and surprise†¦ excited by sudden varieties of situation and accumulated imagery†), appears in â€Å"The Thorn†. In earlier discussions, both of these had been in most part used synonymously to denote a faculty of the mind which is distinguished from ‘reason’ and ‘judgement’, and which receives ‘images’ from the senses and records them into new combinations. He stresses that ‘imagination’, and not ‘fancy’, should be used to refer to the creative or poetic principle. The distinction between imagination and fancy was a key element in Coleridge’s theory of poetry, as well as in the general theory of the mental processes. This laconic differentiation is the core of his exposition on â€Å"the nature and genesis of the imagination. † M. H. Abrams, in â€Å"The Mirror and the Lamp†, points out that, â€Å"As in his philosophy, so in his criticism, Coleridge roots his theory in the constitution and activity of the creative mind. † The memory, for Coleridge, is â€Å"mechanical†, and fancy â€Å"passive†, which acts only â€Å"by a sort of juxtaposition†. The imagination, on the other hand, â€Å"recreates†, its elements by a process to which Coleridge sometimes applies terms borrowed from the physical and chemical unions- it is a â€Å"synthetic†, a â€Å"permeative† and a â€Å"blending, fusing power†. The imagination is â€Å"essentially vital†; it â€Å"generates and produces a form of its own. † Fancy is thus a perfunctory process which receives the elementary images- the â€Å"fixities and definites† which it receives from the senses, and without altering the parts, reassembles them into a different spatial and temporal order form that in which they were originally perceived. The imagination creates rather than reassembles by dissolving the fixities and definites, and unifying them into a new whole. The faculty of imagination â€Å"generates and produces a form of its own† while its rules are â€Å"the very powers of growth and production. † It assimilates and synthesises the most disparate elements into an organic whole- a newly generated unity, constituted by a living interdependence of parts whose identity cannot survive their removal from the whole. Fancy can be taken to mean surface decorations of new combinations of memories and perceptions, while imagination involved a combination of elements in the cauldron of the poet’s mind, with imagination acting as a base of sorts more than anything else, which results in the creation of a new work. Coleridge further distinguishes between the Primary and Secondary imagination. If the process of creation is conceived as being essentially and perpetually the bringing of order out of chaos, then the Primary imagination is essentially creative and â€Å"a repetition in the finite mind of the eternal act of creation in the finite I AM. † This could be explained by reducing imagination to a single image, or a train of thought, in one’s mind- this quality, being inherent in every conscious, human being (that is, in evolutionary terms, the ability of foresight and being able to think around a situation), and Coleridge has recognized this as constituting the Primary imagination. The Secondary imagination is the conscious human use of this power. When we employ our Primary imagination in the act of perception, we are not doing so with our conscious will, but are exercising the basic faculty of our awareness of ourselves and the external world; the Secondary imagination is more conscious and less elemental, but it does not differ in kind from the primary. In imagination, elements in an environment that strike the creator’s sensibility are blended and fused into a new whole- the poet has to merge reason and emotion, restraint and spontaneity, the abstract and the concrete, etc. The entire exercise is a â€Å"reconciliation of opposites†, (precisely why it is a conscious one), emphasizing the dialectical character of creativity. The action can be reduced to three basic phases: thesis, antithesis and synthesis, but this process is inexplicable, as is imagination, and particular to the poet himself. The resultant exposition can never be stripped down to its original elements. To exemplify this, Coleridge uses the analogy of the transformation of a seed into a plant to explain this theory. Once the seed has been planted, and grows into a plant, it is impossible to reduce the plant to singular elements like the seed, the water, the air, the soil, etc. It is a whole- an organic unit. In the same manner- a creation of the imagination has an inherent organic unity- it cannot be reduced to any of its contributory elements. This is the dialectical character of creativity that involves synthesis- the result of this blend and fusion is a whole. Coleridge stressed that imagination makes â€Å"new perception possible†. If indeed a work springs out of imagination, it holds the ability to penetrate the experience of its genesis and reveal the essence of the object. This echoes Aristotle’s view that poetry or art penetrates through the idea of an object and brings to the surface not the particular, but the universal in the particular, the essence. In a writer’s imagination, thus, the experience is unifying or coadunative- what Coleridge calls â€Å"Esemplastic†- it is moulded into an expression by the imagination. Literature thus becomes a piece of actuality subjected to the laws of imagination. Most critics after Coleridge tended to make fancy simply that faculty that produces a lesser, lighter, or more humorous kind of poetry, and to make imagination the faculty that produces a higher, more serious, and more passionate poetry. However, the mark of Coleridge’s theories is undoubtedly present in each of these. As he himself has stated: â€Å"I laboured at a solid foundation, in the component faculties of the human mind itself and their comparative dignity and importance. â€Å"

The stylistic features of cyber language

With the development and popularization of the Internet, more and more people are added to the Internet communicative activities. Online chat is one of these increasingly popular forms. Since it is open and compatible, it draws the attention of people from all over the world and from every circle. Therefore, the study of cyber language has become a focus of attention. In this paper, under the theory of modern stylistics, the stylistic features of cyber language and its causes were discussed from vocabulary and grammatical levels. The author has demonstrated some lexical features of cyber language with a number of examples.Then, in the second part, the grammatical features have been discussed. And the third part is about the causes of these stylistic features. 1. 1 Background of the Present Study From 1990s, the Internet has gradually spread around the world and a networked, digital information revolution has penetrated into all areas of society. According to the data of U. S. researc h firm (Pew Internet and American Life Project [PIALP], 1999) the number of Chinese net citizens has reached 137 million and would be expected to surpass the United States in 2009, the world's biggest Internet market.Although he history of Network development is not long, it is sweeping across the world with incredible speed and unstoppable trend, and is gradually changing people's concept of survival, status, and mode. With the popularization of network technology, online exchange has become an important part of daily communication. Therefore, a new media has been produced during this process-cyber language. To a large extent, the great influence of social development has contributed a lot to this phenomenon.Many scholars no matter home or abroad have stepped into this area and suggested their own opinions from various aspects. This paper has analyzed the features of cyber language from the stylistic point of view. 1. 2 Purpose of the Present Study Cyber language is an open system of signs. Because of some political and economical factors, more and more English words will come into the field of Internet and play some necessary functions. To some extent, we may say that those English words serve as a complement and development of Chinese characters.As a main informational carrier of Internet media, cyber English reflects the impacts of lexical contact and spread on Chinese characters as well as the cultural influences from English-speaking countries in Informational Era. Research of cyber language has pushed the development of verbal and cross-cultural communication and has practical meaning in aspects of Language Standard, language teaching, the compile of new dictionary as well as the sound development of cyber language and so on. Therefore, it deserves the attention of language workers. . 1 Definition and Explanation 2. 1. 1 Explanation of Online Communication added to the Internet communicative activities. People type letters on keyboard and receive words on screen. Their communication breaks up the boundary of time and space. It is different from the face -to -face communication in general sense. Kiesler, Siegel, and Timothy (1984) think that such computer-mediated exchange activity has two interesting features: 1) lack of social contextual information; 2) lack of widely accepted principle of usage.The first feature prevents the participants from relying on hand gestures, body potential language, facial expressions and other non- linguistic information to explain the text and assist the exchange. The lack of rules makes the traditional communicative rituals broken and gradually a number of Internet specifications which were widely approved have been formed. But as a real- time communicative activity, it is very close to the daily face-to-face oral communication. In real-time communication, the communicator can both receive information and send a message.Receiving and transmitting information is a continuous, uninterrupted process. T his allows the two communicators to exchange feedback in time, adjust and revise the direction and content of the next exchange. Obviously, cyber language has the features of both spoken and written language and it obscures the traditional distinction between oral and written language, forming its own unique style. 2. 1. Definition of Stylistic Tags This paper analyses the stylistic features of cyber language from two perspectives: description and context of language.In the language description, we use the system of stylistic tags to classify the language feature. According to Enkvist and Spenser (1964), stylistic tag is a prominent stylistic feature. Any language project with stylistic meanings can be regarded as a style tag which is the same as the concept of â€Å"salient†in functional stylistics. In his work, Zhang (1998) states: Halliday, founder of Systemic-functional Linguistics thinks that salient is a collective discourse for those rotruding language features in some form of context.Then he classifies those features into two types: one is against the conventional prominent, negative; the other is consistent with conventional prominent, positive. (pp. 21-22) In stylistics, language features are generally divided into four levels: phonology, word position, vocabulary, syntax / grammar. When chat in the net, visual text or punctuation is the only carrier to transmit information, so phonological style tags do not have stylistic sense. We only analyze the word, vocabulary, syntax / grammar style tags.

Smartphone Usage Among Students

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1. Introduction: Smartphone Usage Mobile phones nowadays are addressed as smartphone as they offer more advanced connectivity and computing ability than a normal cell phone. The term smartphone refers to a programmable mobile phone that offers advanced capabilities and features that help individuals in their daily work and personal life (Euromonitor, 2010). Smartphone basically is the combination of both cell phone and a PDA. 70% of the world’s population own at least one mobile phone. In a telephone survey, 83% of respondents said that they owned a cell phone and 35% of the 2,277 U. S. dults said that they owned a smartphone. Literately, a smartphone is a handheld computer, as it is powerful enough to deliver various functionalities comparable to a computer. The release of dual-core processors smartphone recently has further reaffirmed this assertion. A research on 5013 US adult smartphone Internet users at the end of 2010 reveal the types of smartphon e users. i. General Smartphone Usage: Cell phones have been a must have item in daily lives. With the invention of smartphones, owing a cell phone is no longer for calling; it has become a trend and is a substitute for computers, telephone and PDA. 1% uses smartphone to browse the Internet, 77% search, 68% use an application and 48% watch videos on their smartphone. ii. Action-Oriented Searchers: Smartphones is used to find wide variety of information and to navigate the mobile internet. Search engine websites are the most visited websites with 77% of US smartphone users citing this. iii. Local Information Seekers: Smartphone is convenient because it users can easily access to information through internet and software provided. 95% of US smartphone users have looked for local information. iv.Purchase-driven Shoppers: Smartphones has been relatively useful for women because it provides shopping tools, from comparing prices, finding more product information to locating a retailer. 74% of US smartphone shoppers make a purchase, whether online, in-store, or on their phones. v. Reaching Mobile Consumers: Businesses never miss the opportunity to advertise their products. With smartphones, consumers are exposed cross-media and a majority of them notice mobile ads which lead to taking action on it. 82% notice mobile ads with half of take action, 35% visiting a website and 49% making a purchase.Figure 1. 1 Smartphone Penetrations across Global Markets Source: http://www. asymco. com/2011/12/13/global-smartphone-penetration-below-10/ (2011) Smartphones have penetrated many countries since its first launching. The number of users started to expand massively in 2010. Figure 1. 1 depicts Singapore to be the country with the most smartphone penetration in year 2011. 2. Smartphone usage in Malaysia With the popularity and functions offered in the phone, smartphones have seen an increase in terms of demand (Park and Chen, 2007). It is reported that in year 2010, 85% of Malays ians own mobile phones.Number of smartphones sold doubles within 12 months. In 2010, mobile phone industry in Malaysia started to boom. The overall value of the industry increased by 30 per cent compared to the year before. The main contributor to the good performance of the industry was the sales of smartphones. The number of units sold went two-fold growth of 208 per cent. Figure 1. 2 Smartphone and Internet Usage in Asia Source: http://www. malaysianwireless. com/2010/05/nsn-talks-about-lte-mobile-broadband/ Figure1. 2 shows that Malaysia is the fifth country in Asia with growing percentage of smartphone and internet usage.With mobile broadband becoming more widely available and affordable, it’s not surprising that a growing number of Malaysians are accessing the Internet via smartphones. Massive competition on mobile broadband industry causes the price of subscription become lower. This is an advantage to middle income people especially to students as they now have the ab ility to own a smartphone and utilise it with mobile internet. More than half of Malaysian consumers (55%) are using laptops and netbooks while eleven per cent said they are using smartphones which is a nine point gain from 2009.Almost two in ten (19%) Malaysians aged 20-24 access the Internet via their mobile phones. Figure 1. 3: Mobile and Smartphone Sales in Malaysia Source: http://marketresearchbulletin. com/? p=3636 The data from the Figure 1. 3 shows that the number of smartphones sold doubles from 2009 to 2010. Since the beginning of 2010, value sales of smartphones have been consistently increasing every month and occupied 72 per cent of the overall pie by December. Overall, close to two in five (38 per cent) mobile phone sets sold last year were smartphones.In Malaysia, it was found that smartphone sales totalled 172. 4 million units in year 2009, with a 23. 8 per cent increase from 2008 (Sidhu, 2010). This increment in sales was partly contributed by university students (J acob and Isaac, 2008). 3. Research Problem Mobile phones have been more and more versatile and with smartphones, it makes communication convenient between and among individuals, especially students. Communication and life makes easy as smartphones provides Internet capability and functionalities that are similar to computers.Students nowadays are prone to using Social networking services (SNS) to spread information. With smartphones, students can instantly share ideas, activities, news, and interests anytime and anywhere. The problem therefore is to understand whether attitudes will affect the intention towards using smartphone among students. Attitude is a feeling, beliefs or opinion towards something. Positive attitude can result in beneficial usage of smartphones by students such as to use it as a medium of learning.On the others hand, negative attitude such as to abuse the use of smartphone will develop negative effects to the users such as incompetent and unable to meet deadlin es and reduces the productivity which will affect the user overall daily routine. The next question that we want to research is on whether perceived behavioural control can influence the intention to use smartphones. Perceived behavioural control is an individual’s perceived ease or difficulty of performing the particular behaviour.It is linked to control beliefs, which refers to beliefs about the presence of factors that may facilitate the behaviour. 4. Research Objectives Research objectives are the objective that we intend to achieve after identifying research problems. There are some of research objectives that are highlighted in this research. One of our main objectives of this research is to understand the determinants of attitude among students in using smartphones. We are going to find out the relationship of the key determinants such compatibility, perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use in influencing the attitude.Secondly, the purpose of this research is to understand the factors that will influence the intention of students to use smartphones. Lastly, this study will also seek to understand the role of attitude on intension. 5. Research Questions In seeking to achieve the above objectives, this study attempts to answer the following research questions: 1) What are the key determinants of intention? 2) Does attitude moderate the relationship between perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, compatibility, observability, trialability, self-efficacy and intention? ) Does perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, compatibility, observability, trialability, self-efficacy influence intention to use? 6. Significance of Study The study is carried out to help us understand the key determinants of intention to use smartphones among students, using attitude as the moderator to the relationship. It helps us to have clearer picture on how the determinants will affect the intention of using smartphones among students by looking at the indepen dent variables that are directly and indirectly affecting the dependent variable (actual use).Understanding the determinants for intention to use will raise awareness regarding usefulness of smartphones to students and will create higher level of acceptance to smartphone in the future. This study will help to give insight on the grey areas of smartphones and enable us to understand better the social and psychological factors that may affect the intention to use smartphone among students. The results from this study can be used by mobile phone manufacturers to improve the functions and elements in smartphone which will attract new users especially students and continue to bring extra benefits to the present users.In addition, this result can be used as a benchmark for smartphone manufacturers to be creative and innovative in developing new ideas that could help users especially students in learning process. Therefore, understanding the key factors that will increase the intention to use smartphone will result in better suitability in functions to students. 7. Definition of Key Terms Perceived Usefulness – defined as the degree to which a person believes that using a particular system would enhance his or her job performance. Davis, 1989) Perceived Ease of Use – defined as the degree to which a person believes that using a particular system would be free of effort. (Davis, 1989) Compatibility – defined as the degree to which using an innovation is perceived as consistent with the existing sociocultural values and beliefs, past and present experiences, and needs of potential adopters. (Rogers, 1983) Observability – defined as the degree to which the results of an innovation are visible to others. (Rogers, 2003) Trialability – defined as the degree to which an innovation may be experimented with on a limited basis. Rogers, 2003) Self-Efficacy – The judgments an individual makes about his or her capability to mobilize the m otivation, cognitive resources and course of action needed to orchestrate future performance on a specific task. (Martocchio and Dulebohn, 1994) Attitude – A psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favour or disfavour† (Chaiken, 1993) Intention – the extent to which an individual intends to perform a specificbehavior. (Davis et al. ,1989). 8. Organization of the Report This research proposal is organized into five chapters.Chapter 1 gives the background of the study. The purposes and research objectives have been put forth to guide the direction of the study. Chapter 2 reviews related literatures by previous researchers. Based on these literatures the theoretical framework and hypotheses are developed. Chapter 3 discusses the research methodology used in this research. Chapter 4 presents the result of the statistical analysis. Chapter 5 summarizes research findings, implications of the findings and limitation of the study. The concluding chapter also provides some suggestions for further studies. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2. Introduction This chapter focuses on discussing the theories, the expansion of the theories to the present theoretical framework used in this research and the justification for the present model. 2. 2 Overview of the literature Various literatures from scholars in Malaysia and abroad were reviewed on the subject Theory Acceptance Model (TAM) and Innovation-Diffusion Theory (IDT). Among numerous perspectives that can be used to examine user acceptance and usage behavior of new technologies, TAM might be the most popular one. This model is derived from Fishbein & Ajzen’s (1975) Theory of Reasoned Action.Davis (1986) developed TAM specifically for explaining and predicting user acceptance of computer technology. The goal of TAM is â€Å"to provide an explanation of the determinants of computer acceptance that is in general, capable of explaining user behavior across a broad range of end-user computing technologies and user populations, while at the same time being both parsimonious and theoretically justified†. The Technology Acceptance Model posits the determinants of user acceptance that may be able to explain a user’s behavior in regard to a general user’s computing technologies.The TAM claims that users evaluate the system based on the system’s ease of use (PEOU) and perceived usefulness (PU). If the system is easy to use and useful, a user would have a positive attitude toward the system (AT), which in turn causes a user’s actual intention to use (BI). Then, the intention creates a user’s decision to use the system. A previous study conducted by Park and Chen indicated that behavioral intention to use a smartphone was largely influenced by perceived usefulness and attitude toward using a smartphone.They further postulated that perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use positively determi ne attitudes toward using a smartphone. Kwon & Zmud (1987) suggest that when discussing IDT-related subjects’ factors such as task, individual, organization, and environment as additional explanatory factors should be introduced. Task includes structure of the task, jurisdiction, and uncertainty. Individual factors include aspects such as education, age, experience, and personal specialties.Organizational factors include the support of higher-level management, the organizational structure, the involvedness of the users, and the quality of the product. Environmental factors include pressure from competitors, customer satisfaction, and marketing strategies. The context of smartphone adoption contains both individual factors and organizational diffusion. Previous innovation diffusion studies have suggested that innovation attributes affect an individual’s attitude of the innovation prior to adoption and may consequently influence the speed of adoptions.This study employed these attributes in building the theoretical basis for behavioral characteristics. These beliefs include, compatibility, trialability, self- efficacy and observability. 2. 3. Theory Acceptance Model (TAM) The TAM probably is the most popular theory explaining user acceptance and behavior related to new technologies. Davis (1989) developed the TAM and investigated the determinants of user acceptance that may explain a user’s behavior in regard to the user’s general attitude toward the use of computing technologies.According to the TAM, users evaluate the system based on the perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness of the system. If the system is perceived as easy to use and useful, a user would have a positive attitude toward the system, which in turn leads to the user’s intention to use the system. Then, the intention results in the user’s actual decision to use the system. We are using the Technology Acceptance Model to test the perceived usefulne ss and perceived ease of use about the intention to use smart phones among students.The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) has become a well-established robust model for predicting user acceptance (Davis, 1989; Davis, Bagozzi, & Warsaw, 1989). TAM is one of the most influential extensions of Ajzen and Fishbein's (1975) theory of reasoned action and specifies two key constructs that influence users' attitudes, intentions, and behaviors related to technology adoption and use (Lippert & Forman, 2005). The parsimony of TAM combined with its predictive power makes it easy to apply to different situations. However, while parsimony is TAM’s strength, it is also the model’s key limitation.TAM is predictive but its generality does not provide sufficient understanding from the standpoint of providing system designers with information necessary to create user acceptance for new systems (Mathieson,1991). TAM provides researchers with â€Å"valid, reliable, and easy to administer s cales for the key constructs† (Venkatesh et al. , 2007, p. 268). Due to the reliability of these measurement scales, questions for the survey instrument in this study were adapted from this information. Venkatesh et al. noted the repeatability and validity of TAM.TAM was confirmed to be generalizable over time in various research papers worldwide, testing numerous technologies, diverse settings, and different populations. Predicted validity was also confirmed by a number of research studies investigating intention, self-reported use, and actual use. Ramayah (2006a) and (Venkatesh, 2000) have added depth to TAM model by understanding the determinants of perceived ease of use in their study. The study by (Venkatesh, 2000) explained up to 60% of the variance in system specific perceived ease of use.The study by (Ramayah, 2006a) on determinants of perceived ease of use of e-Library also explained up 65% of the total variance. These studies have some of the highest explanatory powe r among TAM research conducted in recent years. The TAM is a specific model developed to explain and predict user’s smartphone usage behavior. Derived from the TAM, it predicts user acceptance based on the influence of two use beliefs: Perceived Usefulness (PU) and Perceived Ease of Use (PEU). 2. 3. 1 Limitation of Theory Acceptance Model (TAM)TAM may be criticized, however, for the lack of sufficient explanation about cognitive processes culminating in a user’s acceptance of new technology. TAM still shares the basic premises and components outlined in Ajzen and Fishbein’s Theory of Reasoned Action (Ajzen and Fishbein, 1980), but by excluding the attitude construct from the TRA model, TAM discounts the role of attitude in explaining technology acceptance behavior. Venkatesh and his colleagues dropped the construct of attitude from the technology acceptance model (Venkatesh and Davis, 1996; Venkatesh and Davis, 2000; Venkatesh et al. 2003), arguing that the role of attitude in explaining behavioral intention or actual adoption behavior is very limited and is at best a partial mediator in the relationship between salient beliefs and the adoption behavior or intention. We contend that this argument is made without serious theoretical consideration and restricts the search for a comprehensive understanding of technology acceptance. 2. 4 Innovation Diffusion Theory (IDT) The IDT describes the process of technology acceptance by five characteristics of the technology influencing the consumer's attitude leading to adopting or refusing the technology (Rogers, 1995).The main difference appears to be TAM's focus on a specific technology whereas IDT recognize the importance of establishing a technology's likelihood to be adopted in relation to comparable existing technologies (Park & Gretzel, 2006). Diffusion of Innovation Theory (DIT or DOI) (Roger 1995) is a well-known conceptual framework to study new products’ diffusion and adoption. The original diffusion model provided a probabilistic approach based on the hazard function, which determines the likelihood that an agent who has remained a non-adopter of an innovative product will become an adopter in the next temporal unit.Rogers [1983] explained the process of innovation diffusion as one which is dictated by uncertainty reduction behaviour amongst potential adopters during the introduction of technological innovations. Even though innovations typically offer its adopters novel ways of tackling day-to-day problems, the uncertainty as to whether the new ways will be superior to existing ones presents a considerable obstacle to the adoption process. To counter this uncertainty, potential adopters are motivated to seek additional information, particularly from their workplace peers [Brancheau & Wetherbe, 1990].In diffusion research theory (Rogers, 1995), diffusion is classified into five stages: innovators, early adopters, the early majority, the late majority, and lag gards, with 2. 5%, 13. 5%, 34%, 34%, and 16% of the population respectively. These barriers are closely connected to all kinds of access-related issues, i. e. access to the physical device needed to use a new mobile service, i. e. the smartphone, or access to money to pay for the hardware to use the service, or to pay for the service itself.Innovation Diffusion Theory (IDT) consists of six major components: innovation characteristics, individual user characteristics, adopter distribution over time, diffusion networks, innovativeness and adopter categories, and the individual adoption process [Tornatsky & Klein, 1982; Rogers, 1983; Brancheau & Wetherbe, 1990; Moore & Benbasat, 1991; Taylor & Todd, 1995(b)]. According to IDT, the rate of technology diffusion is affected by an innovation’s relative advantage, compatibility, trialability, observability and complexity.Research suggests that all but the last factors have a positive influence on diffusion (Sonnenwald, Maglaughlin an d Whitton 2004; Ferle, Edwards and Mizuno 2002). Rogers (1995) defines relative advantage as ‘the degree to which an innovation is seen as being superior to its predecessor’. The IDT posits an array of innovation characteristics that may impact a user’s perception of the innovation preceding adoption of the innovation. As a result, these characteristics presumably affect the speed of innovations being embraced. These attributes further provide a theoretically-based set of socio-behavioral beliefs.Thus, we adopted IDT because of the innovative nature of smartphone devices. Innovation may be defined as a new use of an idea, practice, or object by the unit of adoption. This definition of innovation can be applied to new technology adoptions among students. Rogers defined innovation as a new use of an idea, a practice, or an object by the unit of adoption. The smartphone was introduced in 2000. Thus, we view smartphone devices as recent innovations and employ Rogersà ¢â‚¬â„¢s DOI theory in our study. Researchers have used the theory to better understand whether an individual or an organization will adopt new innovations. 2. Theoretical Framework Theoretical frameworks in quantitative research help to â€Å"provide a conceptual guide for choosing the concepts to be investigated, for suggesting research questions, and for framing the research findings† (Corbin & Strauss, 2008, p. 39). Figure 2. 5. 1 Theoretical Framework 6. Independent Variable 2. 6. 1 Perceived Usefulness In Technology Acceptance Model, behavior intention is influenced by both perceived usefulness and attitude. This relationship has been examined and supported by many prior studies (Adams et al. , 1992; Davis et al. , 1989; Hu et al. , 1999; Venkatesh and Davis, 1996, 2000).Perceived usefulness refers to the degree to which a person believes that using a particular system would enhance his or her job performance, (Davis, 1989). Many earlier studies have shown that perceive d usefulness was the major determinant of attitude towards system use (Langford and Reeves, 1998; Venkatesh and Davis, 1996). Empirical studies have shown that perceived usefulness has a strongly impact on usage than ease of use. Perceived usefulness are existing in the studies of technology to shown that perceived usefulness directly and significantly influences behavioral intention to use smartphone (Chen and Ching, 2002; Chen et al. 2002; Heijden et al. , 2003; Guriting and Ndubisi, 2006; Khalifa and Shen, 2008; Liao et al. , 2007; Lin and Wang, 2005; Luarn and Lin, 2005; Wei et al. , 2009; Lai and Yang, 2009). However, Davis et al. (1989) to suggest that perceived usefulness may impact on behavioral intention to use the technology-based system. H1: Perceived usefulness is positive related to intention to use. H2: Perceived usefulness is positive related to attitude. 2. Perceived Ease of Use Perceived ease of use refers to the extent to which an individual perceived that using a system is easy or effortless (Davis, 1989).Earlier studies revealed that if an individual perceives a system to be easy to use, he/she is more likely to perceive the system to be useful also (Morris and Dillion, 1997). In addition, if an individual perceives the system to be easy to use, the individual is more likely to use the system, especially among novice users. In a test of selling, when consumers perceive that making a purchase from a virtual store is easy to understand and do, they usually continue interacting with that site (Barkhi and Wallace, 2007). However, by the prior literature by Davis et al. 1989) proposed that perceived ease of use is predicts attitude towards the channel, and also an antecedent of perceived usefulness. Technology acceptance model (TAM) (Davis et al. , 1989; Mathieson, 1991; Davis and Venkatesh, 1996; Gefen and Straub, 2000; Al-Gahtani, 2001) determined by perceived usefulness (PU) and perceived ease of use (PEOU) relating to the attitude toward use that relates to intention and finally to behavior but there is no direct related with actual use. H3: Perceived ease of use is positive related to intention to use H4: Perceived ease of use is positive related to attitude. 2. 6. 3 CompatibilityCompatibility (Park and Gretzel, 2006) is the degree to which in an innovation is perceived as being consistent with the existing values, needs, and past experiences of potential adopters. Compatibility (Gavin J. Putzer, 2010) has a positive effect on the rate of adoption. When a user recognizes that an innovation is compatible with a system, the more the innovation will be adopted. Compatibility (Rogers,1995) refers to ‘the degree to which an innovation is seen to be compatible with existing values, beliefs, experiences and needs of adopters’. In a conjoint analysis directed at the adoption of mobile games, Kleijnen et al. 2004) found that perceived risk, which are often used in extensions of Rogers’ concepts (Ortt, 1998) of complexity, and are also referred to as relative ease of use and compatibility, are important factors in the intention to use of mobile services(eg Smartphone) . According to Kleijnen et al. (2004), this implies that mobile systems (eg Smartphone) have to be reliable and data-transmission has to be secure, while the systems have to be easy to navigate and fit into the daily routine of users. H5: Compatibility is positive related to intention to use H6: Compatibility is positive related to attitude . 6. 4 Observability Observability (Park and Gretzel, 2006)is the degree to which the results of an innovation is observable to others. Observability (Yangil Park,2010) has a positive effect on adoption. When a user has an opportunity to observe an innovation, the innovation is more likely to be adopted. Observability(Rogers,1995) is the ‘degree to which the results of an innovation are visible’. An innovation factor from the Kwon and Zmud model known as trialability was r emoved from our model to reduce possible confusion with another innovation factor known as observability.The final pair of characteristics, results demonstrability and visibility, are derived from Rogers’ observability characteristic. Result demonstrability is defined as the tangibility of the results of adopting an innovation, and visibility as the degree to which prospective users see an innovation as being visible in the adoption context [Moore & Benbasat, 1991; Agarwal & Prasad, 1997]. H7: Observability is positive related to intention to use H8: Observability is positive related to attitude 2. 6. 5 Trialability Trialability (Park and Gretzel , 2006) is the degree to which an innovation may be experimented with before an adoption.Trialability (C Huang,2010) existence negative relationship with the attitude of use. Trialability (Rogers,1995) is the ‘degree to which an idea can be experimented with on a limited basis’. If a person can try out the technology bef ore deciding to accept Smartphone, the person will develop a stronger attitudinal belief about the technology, either in a positive or in a negative way depending on the quality of the new technology (Karahanna et al. , 1999; Venkatesh & Brown, 2001; Xia & Lee, 2000; Choi et al. , 2002). Therefore, if a user as an opportunity for trial usage before enroll with Smartphone; the person will have positive attitudinal belief and intention to use Smartphone. H9: Trialability is positive related to intention to use H10: Trialability is positive related to attitude 2. 6. 6 Self Efficacy Self-efficacy (SE) refers to individuals’ belief in their ability to perform a specific task in a given situation or context (Bandura, 1977). Bandura (1977) states that efficacy expectations—the belief that one can perform an activity in question—are the major antecedent of activity choice and effort. Jengchung Chen, 2010) is recognized to be a more important than the others. Efficacy re fers to the belief that an individual has the ability to perform a particular behavior. Compared with competing models, TAM is believed to be more accurate and parsimonious when it is used to predict technology adoption. However, the parsimony of TAM often results in the model being less informative in understanding usage behavior. Due to this limitation, researchers have attempted to extend the TAM framework by encompassing various constructs such as gender, culture, trust, experience, social influence, and self-efficacy.Among those constructs, self-efficacy is recognized to be a more important than the others. Efficacy refers to the belief that an individual has the ability to perform a particular behavior. Self-efficacy has been documented in numerous studies to be an important determinant of PEOU. In the context of web technologies, Agrawal et al (2000) found a positive effect of self-efficacy on both PU and PEOU. Similarly, Ma & Liu (2005) found that self-efficacy positively in fluences PU, PEOU, and the intention to use smartphone. H11: Self Efficacy is positive related to intention to use. . 7 Mediating Variable 2. 7. 1 Attitude According to Antonides et al. , (1998), â€Å"Attitude is the individual predisposition to evaluate an object or an aspect of the world in a favorable or unfavorable manner. † In Fishbein & Ajzen’s (1975) formulation, attitudes influence behaviour through behavioural intentions. Past studies indicate that the link between attitude toward the object and behaviour is not always clear. In some cases, attitudes have a direct effect on behaviours (Bagozzi & Warshaw 1992) but no effect in Bagozzi (1992).Both PU and PEU are posited as having significant impact on a user’s attitude (AT) toward using smartphones. (Yong-Wee Sek 2010) Based on an analysis of four different types of mobile services, Nysveen et al. (2005b) conclude that, in all four cases, people’s intention to use mobile services as well as their attitude toward the actual use, is affected significantly by the direct motivational influence of enjoyment. Moore & Benbasat [1991:196] reminds us, however, that these definitions are, in fact, â€Å"based on perceptions of the innovation itself and not on the perceptions of actually using the system†.As Fishbein & Ajzen [1980] concur, attitudes towards an object and attitudes regarding a particular behaviour relating to that object can frequently differ. Attitude towards behaviour can be described as an individual’s subjective forecast of how positive or negative he / she will feel when performing the target behaviour, whereas subjective norm can be viewed as an individual’s perception of the social pressure on him / her to perform the target behaviour [Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975; Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980].Furthermore, according to the expectancy value model of attitude [Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975], an individual’s attitude towards performing the target behaviour is itself determined by his / her beliefs regarding the consequences of performing the target behaviour, as well as the evaluation of these consequences. Attitude is explained as a function of the combined effect of behavioural beliefs and outcomes evaluations [Mathieson, 1991]. The behavioural beliefs relate to the favourable utilitarian, hedonic and social outcomes that can result from performing the behaviour [Venkatesh & Brown, 2001]. Davis et al. 1989) indicated that the key purpose of TAM is to provide a basis to trace the impact of external factors on internal beliefs, attitudes and intentions. Many IT researchers have since used TAM as a basis to explore and identify other determinants and relationships specific to a particular IT usage in different contexts (Venkatesh et al. , 2003). Hence, since the intention of smart phone among students is very closely tied attitude, this theory should be directly applied to the adoption of this innovation. (Check-Yee Law 2010) H12: Att itude is positive related to intention to use 2. 8 Dependent Variable 2. 8. 1 Intention to useIntentions are different form attitudes where attitudes are summary evaluations, intentions represent the person’s motivation in the sense of his or her conscious plan to exert effort to carry out a behavior (Eagly & Chaiken 1993). Behavioural Intentions (BI) to use is jointly determined by a person’s attitude toward using the system and its perceived usefulness (Shahril Bin Parumo 2010). Behavioural intention is a measure of the strength of one’s intention to perform a specified behaviour (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975). It is correlated with the usage (Davis et al. , 1989) and is a predictor for usage (Szajna, 1996).Purchase intentions are personal action tendencies relating to the product (Bagozzi et al. 1979). Intentions are different from attitudes where attitudes are summary evaluations, intentions represent the person’s motivation in the sense of his or her con scious plan to exert effort to carry out a behavior (Eagly & Chaiken 1993). At times, intention is also difficult to measure. For instance, Bagozzi, Baumgartner & Yi (1989) commented that when an individual is unclear about his or her intention in regards to some action, there is strong tendency for him to react based on their past actions.Here, the individual is likely to report his or her habit rather than intention when responding to the intention (Warsaw & Davis, 1985). Despite issues, purchase intention is an important construct in consumer behavior (Kotler & Armstrong, 2003). A previous study conducted by Park and Chen indicated that behavioral intention to use a smartphone was largely influenced by perceived usefulness and attitude toward using a smartphone. The Theory Acceptance Model is the most popular intention-based theories and models that have emerged from this school of thought [Chau & Hu, 2002].CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY 3. 1 Introduction The purpose of chapter 3, method ology is to explain the process or the steps taken to answer the research problems. The process may be expanded to include a philosophically coherent collection of theories, concepts or ideas as they relate to a particular discipline of inquiry in this research. Discussion in this chapter will consists of the research model, variables and measurement, population, sample and sampling techniques, data collection technique and techniques of analysis. 3. 2 Research Model 3. . 1 Type of Study This is correlational study. This study was conducted among students in Universiti Sains Malaysia who are personally using smartphones. Hypotheses testing was undertaken to explain the variance in the dependent variables to predict the relationship. We will begin by discussing the relationship that certain events might have to one another whether there is a positive correlation or negative correlation or no correlation. 3. 2. 2 Nature of Study This study was conducted under the non-contrived setting (natural environment).The variables are neither controlled nor manipulated. This is a cross sectional study where data were collected within 2 weeks. Data is only collected from willing students from Universiti Sains Malaysia. 3. 2. 3 Unit of Analysis The unit of analysis is individual who are students using smartphones in USM. 3. 2. 4 Research Site The research sites for this study are individuals who study in USM, Penang. 3. 3 Population, Sample Size and Sampling Technique The population consists of individuals who are students of Universiti Sains Malaysia (main campus) that uses smartphone.The general rule for the of analysis independent variable, sample size must be five-to-one ratio (5:1) of the independent variable, which means that number of respondent must be at least 30. However, based on Hair et al. (1988) he proposed that the acceptable ratio is ten-to-one (10:1) of the independent variable, which means in a research must have minimum 60 respondents. The sampling techniq ue used is non-probability sampling method. Non-probability sampling method is used because only little attempt is made to generate a representative sample.Besides, there is no need to generalize compared to probability sampling and feasibility. Moreover, when there come to limited objectives, non-probability will be a good choice. Judgment method has been chosen as the sampling technique for this study because there is a need to find out whether people that we approach have access to social networking sites before filling up the questionnaire. This ensures credibility of this research. The list of smartphone users among students in Penang cannot be obtained therefore probability sampling could not be done. . 4 Scale and Measurement The questionnaire was divided into 10 sections. Section 1 to 8 is measured using interval scale of measurement. The other two sections, personal profile and internet experience is measured by using nominal and ordinal scale. For section 1 to 8, the respo ndents were asked to read and respond to all questions according to their level of agreement or disagreement using the 5 point scale. The ratings are as below: 1 Strongly Disagree 2 Disagree 3 Neutral 4 Agree 5 Strongly AgreeAll instruments were adopted from various literatures and were modified for the purpose of understanding people’s reflection when they use smartphones. 3. 4. 1 Independent Variable The independent variable is defined as the presumed cause of some changes in the dependent variable (Robbins, 1998). 3. 4. 1. 1 Perceived Usefulness Perceived usefulness of the individuals was measured on six items using 5-point scale ranging from â€Å"strongly disagree† (1) to â€Å"strongly agree† (7). Items were derived from Park & Chen (2007). Example of question is â€Å"Using the smartphone would enable me to accomplish tasks more quickly†. 3. . 1. 2 Perceived Ease of Use Six items using 5-point scale was used to measure perceived ease of use of the individuals ranging from â€Å"strongly disagree† (1) to â€Å"strongly agree† (7). Items were derived from Park & Chen (2007). Example of question is â€Å"I would find it easy to get the smartphone to do what I want it to do†. 3. 4. 1. 3 Compatibility This measure was derived from Park & Chen (2007) and a total of 3 items was measure using 5-point scale ranging from â€Å"strongly disagree† (1) to â€Å"strongly agree† (7). Example of question is â€Å"Using the smartphone will be compatible with all aspects of my studies†. 3. 4. 1. Observability Observability of the individuals was measured on six items using 5-point scale ranging from â€Å"strongly disagree† (1) to â€Å"strongly agree† (7). Items were derived from Park & Chen (2007). Example of question is â€Å"It is easy for me to observe others using the smartphone in my university†. 3. 4. 1. 5 Trial ability This measure was derived from Park & Chen (2007) and a total of four items was measure using 5-point scale ranging from â€Å"strongly disagree† (1) to â€Å"strongly agree† (7). Example of question is â€Å"Before deciding on whether or not to adopt the smartphone, I would need to use it on a trial basis†. . 4. 1. 6 Self-Efficacy Self-efficacy of the individuals was measured on ten items using 5-point scale ranging from â€Å"strongly disagree† (1) to â€Å"strongly agree† (7). Items were derived from Park & Chen (2007). Example of question is â€Å"I could complete a task using the smartphone if I had seen someone else using it before trying it myself†. 3. 4. 2 Dependent Variable Dependent variables are variable that is measured, predicted, or monitored and are expected to be affected by the manipulation of the independent variable. The dependent variable for this study is the intention to use smartphones. 3. 4. . 1 Intention to Use Smartphones Intention to use smartphones was measured by ite ms adopted and validate by Park & Chen (2007). It has a total of four items measuring the intention of users to use smartphones. Example of item is â€Å"Assuming I have the smartphone, I intend to use it†. 3. 4. 3 Moderating Variable Moderating variable is a second independent variable, believed to have a significant contributory or contingent effect on the originally stated IV-DV relationship. The moderating variable for this study is attitudes towards using smartphones. 3. 4. 3. 1 Attitudes towards Using SmartphonesFour items using 5-point scale was used to measure perceived ease of use of the individuals ranging from â€Å"strongly disagree† (1) to â€Å"strongly agree† (7). Items were derived from Park & Chen (2007). Example of question is â€Å"Using the smartphone is would be a pleasant experience†. 3. 5 Questionnaire Design One hundred and twenty five respondents from Universiti Sains Malaysia voluntarily responded and completed the questionnaire. The questionnaire has 10 sections with 55 questions to measure the relationship of those factors and the intention to use smartphones as well as some demography questions.Table 3. 1 depicts that all instruments used in this study had a corresponding Cronbach alpha ;. 693 Table 3. 1 Questionnaire Source and Validity |Variable |Construct |Items |Cronbach | Author | |Independent |Perceived Usefulness |6 |;. 779 |Park & Chen (2007) | | |Self-Efficacy |10 |;. 85 |Park & Chen (2007) | | |Perceived Ease of Use |6 |;. 764 |Park & Chen (2007) | | |Trialability |4 |;. 748 |Park & Chen (2007) | | |Observability |2 |;. 693 |Park & Chen (2007) | | |Compatibility |3 |;. 99 |Park & Chen (2007) | |Dependent |Intention to Use Smartphones |4 |;. 765 |Park & Chen (2007) | |Moderating |Attitude towards Using Smartphones |4 |;. 795 |Park & Chen (2007) | 3. 6 Data Collection Technique Data for this study was collected through structured questionnaires. The questionnaires were distributed to students in USM, Penang. 3. 7 Statistical Data Analysis The data gathered through questionnaire was subsequently coded and analyzed sing the computerized SPSS (Statistical Software Package for Social Science) software version 16. They were summarized using appropriate descriptive and inferential statistics. 3. 7. 1 Goodness and Correctness of Data Entry Establishing the goodness of data lends credibility to all subsequent analyses and findings (Sekaran, 2003). The main objective is to provide an introductory idea of how good the scales were by checking the central tendency and distribution of the responses. In order to prevent data entry error, data will be checked by running descriptive statistics for minimum, maximum, and count.The mean, range, standard deviation and variance in the data will give a good idea of how the respondents have reacted to items in the questionnaire (Sekaran, 2003). Nevertheless, the missing value does not exhibit whether the data had been entered correctly. This is d ue to the large amount of variables that need to be keyed in. 3. 7. 2 Factor Analysis The principle concern of factor analysis is the resolution of a set of variables linearly in terms of (usually) a small number of factors. This resolution can be accomplished by the analysis of the correlation among the variables.A satisfactory will yield factors which concern essential information if the original set of variables (Harry H. Harman, 1976). When a researcher has a set of variables and suspects that these variables are interrelated in a complex fashion, then factor analysis can be used to untangle the linear relationships into their separate patterns (Zikmund, 2003). 3. 7. 3 Validity and Reliability Validity becomes an issue whenever we ask: How can we access a concept that we have? Validity test is the degree to which the test actually measures what it claims to measure (Gregory, 1992).Reliability test is the degree to which tests is free from error in measuring and therefore yield c onsistent results. It is th extent which respondent can provide almost similar answer to the same or approximately the same question the same way each time. Test validity is requisite to test reliability. If a test is not valid, then reliability is moot. Validity test plays an essential role in order to test the goodness of measurement. Validity ensures the ability of a scale to measure the intended concept (Sekaran 2003).However, reliability also very important because reliability deals with the accuracy and precision of a measurement procedure which is the respondent can answer the same or approximately the same questions the same way each time. In short, reliability is the â€Å"consistency† or â€Å"repeatability† of measurement. In order to assure that the variables are measured correctly and make sure that the respondent was understood the lucidness, wordings, interpretation and appropriateness of the questions, the content validity of the questionnaire was estab lished through literature review.Cronbach’s coefficient alpha is the commonly used measure for internal consistency reliability. Cronbach's alpha assesses the reliability of a rating summarizing a group of test or survey answers which measure some underlying factor. Cronbach’s alpha value that larger than . 70 or . 80 regard as the benchmark for acceptable reliability values (Nunnally and Bernstein, 1994). 3. 7. 4 Descriptive Analysis The analysis aims to provide an overview of the respondents and an insight into their behavioural patterns. Descriptive analysis was not used to analyze gender, race, education and income level.For this data, the frequencies and percentage was used for computation. 3. 7. 5Regression Analysis Regression analysis is used as a statistical tool for the investigation of relationships between variables (Norman R. Draper, Harry Smith, 1998). Multiple regressions are a statistical technique that allows us to predict someone’s score on one variable on the basic of their scores on several other variables. Below are the assumptions of regression analysis. a. Normality assumption Regression assumes that variables have normal distribution. It used to determine whether a random variable is normally distributed.If the histogram appears to at least resemble a bell shape curve, it was assumed that the normality requirement has been met. A bell shape curve will have almost zero mean and value of one for standard deviation. b. Linearity assumption Standard multiple regression can only accurately estimate the relationship between dependant and independent variables if the relationship are linear in nature. Linearity illustrates a relationship between variables that can be described by a straight line passing through the data cloud. c. Homoscedasticity assumptionHomoscedasciticity means that the variance of errors is the same across all level of the IV. When the variance of errors differs at different values of the IV, heterosced asticity is indicated. This assumption means that the variance around the regression line is the same for all values of the predictor variable. d. Independence of Error Term Independence of Error Term means the predicted value is independent of other predicted values. Durbin-Watson statistics was used to validate the independence of error term assumption. Value of Durbin-Watson should fall between 1. 50 and 2. 0, which implies no auto-correlation problem. e. Multicollinearity Multicollinearity is the condition when two or more of the independent variables are highly correlated which will result in an overestimation of the standard deviation of the regression coefficients as an indicator of the relative importance of independent variable. Tolerance above 0. 1, Variance Inflation Factor (VIF) value below 10 and condition index below 30 signifies no major multicollinearity problem. f. Outliers In statistics, an outlier is an observation that is numerically distant from the rest of the data.Case wise diagnostics was run to identify any outlier in the sample. Any cases that fell above the standard deviation value of 2. 50 would be dropped. CHAPTER 4 ANALYSIS AND RESULT 4. 1 Introduction This chapter represents the result of the study from the statistical analysis conducted on the collected data and hypotheses testing. In the first part of this chapter the presentation would be on the characteristics of respondent profiles. The goodness of measured is determined by analyzing frequency analysis, descriptive analysis and reliability analysis on the measurement.The final part of this chapter would be focused on hypotheses testing, correlation testing and linear regressions. 4. 2 Samples and Profiles 4. 2. 1 Frequency Analysis Table 4. 2. 1: Personal Profile of Respondents |Demographics |Frequency |Percentage | |Gender | | | | Male |43 |34. | | Female |82 |65. 6 | | Missing |0 |0 | |Ethnicity | | | | Malay |46 |36. 8 | | Chinese |65 |52. | | Indian |5 |4. 0 | | Others |9 |7. 2 | | Missing |0 |0 | |Nationality | | | | Malaysian |86 |68. | | Others |39 |31. 2 | | Missing |0 |0 | |Year | | | | First Year |31 |24. 8 | | Second Year |66 |52. | | Third Year |21 |16. 8 | | Fourth Year and Above |7 |5. 6 | | Missing |0 |0 | |Program | | | | Bachelor's degree (undergraduate) |123 |98. | | Masters |2 |1. 6 | | Missing |0 |0 | |Status | | | | Part Time |17 |13. 6 | | Full Time |108 |86. | | Missing |0 |0 | |Faculty | | | | Management |95 |76. 0 | | Computer |6 |4. 8 | | Technology |4 |3. | | HBP |11 |8. 8 | | Communication |3 |2. 4 | | Chemistry |2 |1. 6 | | Humanities |1 |0. 8 | | Missing |3 |2. | |Live | | | | In Campus |100 |80. 0 | | Outside Campus |25 |20 | | Missing |0 |0 | A total of 125 responses were obtained from 125 questionnaires.According to table 4. 2. 1, the respondents comprised 43 males (34. 4%) and 82 females (65. 6%). 46 (36. 8%) of the 125 respondents were Malay, 5(4. 0%) Indian, 65 (52. 0%) Chinese and other races comprised of 9 (7 . 2%). 86 (68. 8%) of the respondents were Malaysians whereas 39 (31. 2%) of them are from other countries. Among the respondents, 31 (24. 8%) of them were First Year students, 66 (52. 8%) of them were Second Year students, 21 (16. 8%) of them were Third Year students and 7 (5. 6%) of them were students form Fourth Year and Above. Besides that, 123 (98. %) of the respondents were undergraduate whereas 2 (1. 6%) of them were master students. 17 (13. 6%) of the respondents were part time students whereas 108 (86. 4%) of them were full time students. In addition, 95 (76. 0%) of the respondents were students from School of Management, 6 (4. 8%) of them were students from School of Computer,4 (3. 2%) of them were from School of Technology, 11 (8. 8%) of them were from School of HBP, 3 (2. 4%) of them were students were students from School of Communication, 2 (1. 6%) of them were students from School of Chemistry, 1 (0. %) of them were students from School of Humanities and 2 (2. 4%) of the data were missing. 100 (80%) of respondents were live in campus whereas 25 (20%) of them were live at outside campus. Table 4. 2. 1. a Internet Experience of Respondents |Demographics |Frequency |Percentage | |Access | | | | Yes |117 |93. | | No |8 |6. 4 | | Missing |0 |0 | | | | | |Where | | | | Home |83 |66. | | Place of employment |13 |10. 4 | | School/ academic institution |21 |16. 8 | | Cybercafe |3 |2. 4 | | Others |5 |4. | | Missing |0 |0 | |Browser | | | | Internet Explorer |40 |32. 0 | | Mozilla Firefox |30 |24. | | Others |32 |25. 6 | | More than one browser |23 |18. 4 | | Missing |0 |0 | |Time | | | | Almost never |2 |1. | | From 0. 5 hours to 1 hour |5 |4. 0 | | 1-2 hours |17 |13. 6 | | 2-3 hours |31 |24. 8 | | More than 3 hours |70 |56. | | Missing |0 |0 | |Often | | | | Less than once a month |1 |0. 8 | | Once a month |1 |0. 8 | | A few times a week |13 |10. | | About once a day |30 |24. 0 | | Several times a day |80 |64. 0 | | Missing |0 |0 | According to table 4. 2. 1. a, 117 (93. 6%) of the respondents have internet access at home while 8 (6. 4%) of them do not have internet access at home. Other than that, 83 (66. %) of the respondents were primarily access internet from home, 13 (10. 4%) of them were primarily access internet from place of employment, 21 (16. 8%) of them were primarily access internet from school or academic institution, 3 (2. 4%) of them were primarily access internet from cybercafe and 5 (4%) of them were primarily access internet from other places. Internet Explorer was the most popular web browser used by respondents which recorded 40 (32%) of respondents following by 32(25. 6%) of them were using others web browser, and 30 (24%) of them were using Mozilla Firefox. 23 (18. %) of the respondents were using more than one browser. On an average day, 70 (56%) of the respondents were spend more than 3 hours on the internet, 31 (24. 8%) of them were spent 2-3 hours on the internet, 17 (13. 6%) of them were spent 1-2 hou rs on the internet, 5 (4/0%) of them were spent from 0. 5 hours to 1 hour on the internet and only 2 (1. 6%) of them almost never spending their time on the internet. On average, 80 (64%) of the respondents were using internet for several times a day, 30 (24%) of them were using internet for about once a day, 13 (10. 4%) of them were using internet for a few times a week, 1 (0. %) of them was using internet for once a month and another 1 (0. 8%) of them was using internet for less than once a month. 4. 3 Descriptive Analysis The summary of the descriptive statistic of the variables is given in table below. Table 4. 3. 1 Overall Descriptive Statistics of the Study Variables |Variables |Mean |Standard Deviation | |Perceived Usefulness | 3. 4707 |0. 56403 | |Self-Efficacy |3. 216 |0. 44948 | |Perceived Ease of Use |3. 6587 |0. 51145 | |Trialability |3. 5720 |0. 66510 | |Observability |3. 6280 |

Financial Report of the Fashion Company Hermes Case Study

Financial Report of the Fashion Company Hermes - Case Study Example The paper "Financial Report of the Fashion Company Hermes" is a report of finance situation of the fashion company called Hermes. A small number of attainment in wristwatch manufacture and fleece merchandise, as sound as in the additional unidentified fields of furnishings, upholstery fabrics and wallpaper complemented. Our existing mà ©tiers, enabling us to tender our clientele a increasingly better alternative of exceptional objects. The responsibility of the managerial Chairmen is to administer the collection and proceed in its all-purpose interest, within the range of the commercial principle and focus to those powers specifically approved by decree to the decision-making Board and to General Meetings of shareholders. Hermà ¨s International’s executive administration is comprised of the administrative Chairmen and the administrative group, which consists of six administration Directors, every of whom has distinct areas of accountability. Its task is to administer the Gro up’s deliberate executive. The Supervisory Board movements current organize over friendship management. For this reason, it has the similar authority as the legal Auditors. The administrative Board determines the planned pay appropriation for the financial year to be submitted to the Annual General Meeting. Among the goods include; Leather Goods-Saddlery: Leather goods and saddler are Hermes founding mà ©tier and account for 47% of sales. Its goods include bags, clutch bags, briefcases, luggage, diaries, writing accessories., small leather accessories, saddles and other equestrian items. Ready to wear and fashion accessories; This group includes; Women’s Ready to wear; tiring a gaucho bonnet and with a button in give, the proviso was decent in tooled or full-grain leathers set sour by a shagreen sheen, by means of entwined jackets in squashy lambskin plus crocodile bronzed to clearness, the final achievement. Tall, slim silhouettes in jodhpur jumpsuits, Amazon skirts, bloomer shorts in strand gabardine or draped dresses in iris and bright green viscose jersey were mutual with harness-bit belts, Etriviere trinkets and Jumping boots in a jiggle to the equestrian globe. Attributing a mark to this innovative vote, clean lines exposed the exactitude of volumes and the exquisiteness of resources. Maxi-hoods, lambskin leggings or jog bottoms in knit cashmere were damaged by athletic women or regular traveler. MEN’S READY-TO-WEAR The materials were work in innovative ways by means of ground-breaking technique that lent them strange weightlessness and gentleness. â€Å"Phantom-seam† calfskin, an terrific instance of trompe l’?il, necessary tremendously precise hot stamping. in the meantime, Etriviere lambskin acquire a screen-printed lining featuring the Pegase d’Hermesmotif, addition the sum total of modification to its very manly outlook. Creating â€Å"suffer exhaustion strand† knit necessary a highly complicated man ufacture progression and more than a few. ACCESSORIES The Accessories Department covers enamel and leather ,

Evaluation of Historical archival material of Colosseum Essay

Evaluation of Historical archival material of Colosseum - Essay Example This "Evaluation of Historical archival material of Colosseum" essay describes the history of one of the greatest architectural achievements of the Roman Empire the Colosseum. The amphitheatre became the most popular and significant amphitheatre of its time and people used to flock from distant countries to watch the spectacles being displayed there. In order to comprehend why the building was able to attract so much attention and why similar buildings were not constructed before, one needs to highlight that the craze for such form of entertainment, such as gladiatorial fights, emerged only during the time span when the Roman Empire was at its peak. In the initial period after the construction, the spectacles were held primarily in circuses. Circuses were in essence U-shaped racecourse tracks, with the entrance being at one end of the track. Hordes of spectators used to fill the stands to view the spectacle, often putting their lives at risk since there was no protection. The stands used to be so crowded that those on the back could not even see the battle going on. According to Roth, architects could manipulate the space whichever way they like. The circus, although designed as a racecourse, was in fact intended for chariot and horse races and athletic events. It was the growing importance and interest in these spectacles and events which gave rise to the need for a public building. It is to be noted that the oldest permanent amphitheater which was built from stone was the one in Pompeii, constructed in 80 BC. The Colosseum was located in a strategically important location given the lack of transportation in the city. A significant important event which made the need for a public building more acute was the disastrous fire of 64 AD, occurring during the reign of Nero (Italy Holidays 2011). In fact, after it, the growth in city architecture occurred at a fast yet unorganized pace. Wood continued to be the characteristic material of buildings in the reconstruction of the city; thus not depriving the city of its previous appearance. From July 18 to 25, it took more than seven days for the fire to die out. The fire ate away most of the part of the city which was characterized as its older part. After the fire had settled down, Rome was left with gaping spaces caused by burnt out buildings, particularly in its heart. This was the opportunity city planners were waiting for to make buildings with the principles of modern architecture. Opinions differ but Nero was held

Strategy Implementation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Strategy Implementation - Essay Example This report discusses the strategy that needs to be implemented within CPK and what are the ways through which the strategy can be implemented. The strategic option that is deemed to be suitable for CPK to achieve sustainable competitive advantage is through the adoption of the Blue Ocean strategy and this paper analyzes CPK’s resources to carry out this strategy. Introduction California Pizza Kitchen is a California based dining restaurant that specializes in providing different varieties of pizza. According to their website they have 265 stores in 32 states and ten foreign countries. The company is expanding this business with great vigor and energy. The main purpose of this paper is to evaluate the control environment in the organization and assessing the company’s ability to follow the Blue Ocean strategy. This includes the assessment of the structure, design, control systems and the people working in the organization. ... Main Body The mission statement of CPK is to â€Å"introduce flavors and tastes from around the world, from Thai to Jamaican Jerk†¦all on a pizza in an upscale environment† (About CPK, cpk.com). This mission statement seems to be too broad and according to the innovative trend carried out at CPK (Offering new flavors and new menu items) (CPK, Press Release), it seems that the mission statement is followed appropriately. To ascertain whether CPK can implement the Blue Ocean strategy, proper research of the company’s resources and abilities is done through these three parts: Structuring The structuring part includes the analysis of processes, relationship and organizational structure and their bonding with each other to make them work more smoothly. The processes at CPK are that Larry S. Flax looks at the operations and the menu of the company whilst Richard S. Rosenfield is in charge of the financial and other investor issues. The organizational structure at CPK is a centralized sort of a structure with a proper Board of directors consisting of 2 CEOs and 5 executive directors. It seems that the company is operated in a rigid manner, sort of an autonomous structure but this power is usually vested within both the CEOs of the company rather than any one of them. The CEOs work together in collaboration so that it might help in succession planning; this clearly suggests that the company is forward sighted. (Business Week, Oct 2009) According to the autonomous structure, it clearly seems that the company offers same menu at all the locations that it has around the globe. Although this may be very beneficial as consumers might be able to get all the renowned varieties offered by CPK but this may also have some implication e.g. the taste of the people situated in other

Management of organisations CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT STRATEGIES Essay

Management of organisations CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT STRATEGIES - Essay Example Corus was created in 1999 through a merger of British Steel and Koninklijle Hoogovens, a Netherlands-based company. The company was experiencing under-performance and operational problems for a period of time. It needed to change in order to turn-around the whole company and restore its competitiveness. The change was initiated by two business strategies, Restoring Success and the Corus Way Programme, which focused on continuous improvement. It was only after the successful implementation when the company became profitable again. It became attractive that today, it has become a part of the Tata Steel Group. This paper aims at exploring and evaluating the continuous improvement strategies in Corus. It focuses on how Corus used its knowledge and experience of continuous improvement to win new customers and find new ways of achieving its objectives from limited resources. The paper has identified some key environmental, economic and social imperatives that drove the company to implement improvement strategies. It has disclosed several quality tools that the company has utilised in order to improve its business processes and performance. It has also pinned down the system of managing quality in the company's production sites. Several years ago Corus bid for a Royal Navy contract for steel in one of the navy's destroyer vessels project. The project was considered as the largest Royal Navy contract awarded in history. Corus failed to acquire the project because the Royal Navy project consultants established that the company has no capability of meeting the high quality specification of steel plate required. Banking on the loss of the biggest contract, Corus management decided to invest in quality management and improvement of its machinery and processes. It has invested millions in their steel plate mills in order to be ready for any similar contracts in the future. Today, the steel manufacturing company focuses on meeting the needs of its customers and providing innovative solutions. Social Imperative In 2003, three Corus employees and four contractors were fatally injured on Corus sites. All serious incidents were cause for the greatest concern and were thoroughly investigated. Recommendations were being made to prevent recurrence, improve job satisfaction and maximize health and safety. The top management committee continually leads the company's initiatives of improving safety performance. They aim to have a continuous reduction of serious accidents as measured by lost time injury frequency rate. Environmental Imperative As a steel manufacturer, Corus believes that good environmental performance is critical to the success of its business. The company aims to improve such performance continuously. It places great emphasis on contributing to a sustainable society and carry out its business in a responsible manner. The climate change is a significant global issue. Corus recognises its role in contributing to the reduction of the problem of green house gases. Emissions to air and discharges to water were focused for

A Comparison of Business Systems Between Japan and China Essay

A Comparison of Business Systems Between Japan and China - Essay Example Being a collectivist culture means that managers and employees in Japan tend to work cooperatively, with very minimal power distance tolerated. A recent empirical study of the Japanese business environment indicated that participative leadership is the most accepted form of management whereby decision-making generally occurs from the bottom-up rather than utilising strict hierarchies of executive control.4 It is through consultation between different ranking employees and managers that a negotiation-based management style thrives and prospers. It is a more balanced system within the business dynamic whereby the attitudes and opinions of workers are highly respected and considered when making important corporate decisions. China, on the other hand, maintains very high levels of power distance between different ranking members of the organisation. Geert Hofstede recognises that Chinese culture scores very highly on power distance scales, meaning that there is a culturally-driven tolera nce for power disparities that makes most business systems vertical rather than horizontal when it comes to decision-making. This is a stark contrast between the Japanese business environment. Unequal power means that employees in the organisational hierarchy are not consulted for their opinions and problem-solving ability, whereby employees are routinely sanctioned and the general belief is that employees should not maintain aspirations for improving their rank and status within the organisational dynamic.5 These disparate relationships between managers and employees are highly polarized, meaning significant division, and there are generally no defences... This paper illustrated that there are many differences and similarities between Chinese and Japanese business systems and internal corporate ideologies. It cannot be said, concretely, that one business system is superior to another, only that both countries operate and manage their business structures with varying philosophies and approaches to securing the future and performance of their respective organisations. Much contemporary literature on how to successfully manage businesses, today, shows that adaptability and flexibility are necessary to find competitive success. Under this premise, it would seem that China maintains the most probability for ensuring long-term business performance than that of Japan. Even though Japan has many strengths, such as high determination in a corporate context, Chinese business systems will be most likely to endure long-term if these systems continue to utilise their current, existing business ideology. This report makes a conclusion that Japanese workers tend to view the future as being opportunistic whereby high performance and profitability results from a business perspective can be attained through dedication and hard work. Chinese employees and managers, in opposite accord, seek to find personal fulfilment whenever possible as a primary lifestyle and cultural goal in the pursuit of finding social acceptance with like-status peers. Therefore, there is evidence that some dimensions of long-term-focused thinking will be abandoned in Chinese culture based on hedonistic consumerism that is becoming commonplace in the nation.

Marketing Plan for Body Scrub Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Marketing Plan for Body Scrub - Term Paper Example The planning process begins with an attempt by the company to size up its present market situation and the factors responsible for it. Such a plan ensures a systematic approach to developing products and services to meet and satisfy the consumer's needs. Providing strategic option is a key role in the marketing plan. A fast life, with lots of fast food, little time for self-care, sometimes results in adverse impacts on the health and body of the individual. This calls for quick-fix solutions. Therefore, while preparing the marketing plan, we need to keep in mind that it must be suitable enough for the individual with very little spare time and who happens to be always on the move. Analysis of External Market: Role of the external market is of prime importance in devising a marketing plan. Such an analysis in the marketing plan helps in explaining in detail the external challenges and opportunities a business may face in the coming year/s. Such an analysis will help in identifying the competitive strength of Dove while taking cues from competitors' strengths. To analyze the market in a better way PESTLE analysis can also be carried out. PESTLE stands for political, economic, socio-cultural, technological, legal and ecological factors Customer Analysis: With growing consciousness amongst the young ones about their being presentable while attending the board meeting, wedding ceremonies, parties with friends, family functions, or even going to college or marketplace. The female member requires a reliable solution to handle moisture related issues. If we take a cursory look at the market, it is found that there are a variety of solutions on offer, both branded as well as unbranded. For a body scrubber, the basic things which need to be emphasized are; Reliability, No harm to the skin.  

Service Desks in IT Service Support Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Service Desks in IT Service Support - Essay Example 0s the ticketing systems somewhat evolved, but were still mainly used by the IT professionally and allowed end-users only limited input on the support work performed on their behalf. Today all Service Desk software is used to make the IT support costumer oriented. Jones C. from EDUCASE (2005) states online that Service Desks handle various tasks such as: Some of Service Desk types include call centers, contact centers and help centers but a Service Desk should offer all of those services (and more) approached globally. Its main goals should be providing a single point of contact to the costumers and restoring normal operation service for the costumer. Hopefully the Service Desk the first place a costumer will go when dealing with an issue it makes sense that the support organization is a priority in business continuity planning. It can be concluded that modern Desktop Service systems integrate incident/problem tracking, as well as change, configuration and service level management. One of the key differentiators between the Help Desk paradigm, and more recently introduced systems according to InteQ’s online resources (2000-2010) is „the ability for end-users to interact with the system, allowing expanded visibility into the ongoing operations and services being provided directly to them by their IT department â€Å". In the late 1980s the IT Infrastructure Library became a standard in the Service Management. It has been created from a project by the CCTA (Central Computer&Telephone Agency) and has become a set of best practices adopted by IT organizations worldwide (InteQ, 2000-2010). Version 1 that emerged in the UK contained 42 task/processes. Although the version was widely accepted it didnt quite capture the needs of networks being formed at that time. Version 2 was published in 2002 stating 10 core processes that were adopted and the version even became the basis for Microsoft Operating Framework. In 2005, ITIL became the foundation for the ISO-20000

Sports Utility Vehicles Essay Example for Free

Sports Utility Vehicles Essay The paper referred to with this text is the one entitled â€Å"Sports Utility Vehicles: The real cost of power,† and the intention in this document is to endeavor to explain the revision process and what I personally learnt from that process as it applies to this paper. In revising the paper, apart from the obvious spelling, punctuation, grammatical and referencing corrections, I also needed to look at the hypothesis, structure and argument basis. There were two reasons for this. Firstly, revision is necessary to ensure that the research and conclusions reached are in accordance with the main theme of the paper, and that it does not raise additional points, which have been left, unanswered. In the respect of the hypothesis question, upon reviewing my work I found that it was necessary to revise from the original, as this was not concisely presented, nor were the original boundaries of the question defined in a manner that was easy to follow. It therefore needed to be more clearly defined. Similarly, from the structural aspect, there was a need for this to be reorganized. In its initial format, some of the points portrayed in the paper were not organized in a manner that clearly led the reader from one to the next, creating what might have appeared to be a disjointed approach to the subject. Clarity was also one of the reasons for the revision. In parts of the paper, it was found that points were made for which there was no supporting evidence, or the relevance of those points to the hypothesis were not connected properly. During the revision of the work, these points were revisited. In most cases, it was possible to provide further clarification, which addressed the issues. However, it was found in one or two instances that further research was necessary to either support the point raised or re-analyze it. The other aspect of the original paper that did require revision was that of the citations and quotations. In some original cases, these did not provide ease of access for the reader and would have reduced the value of the paper as a credible research document. Some of the references were too vague and in other instances, references and bibliographical connections were missing. I believe that the value that I personally gained from the process of the revision of this paper will benefit future research and other work that I undertake. I learnt the importance of being able review work in an objective manner, questioning the arguments raised in an effort to seek their relevance to the issues being addressed and the hypothesis itself. In addition, I learnt that the style of writing and the structure of the document, in terms of both the sentences and the ordered manner of presenting points raised, make a significant difference to the clarity of the document and impacts upon it knowledge value for the reader or student. As a result, I believe that the revising of the SUV paper will provide me with the ability to produce a better standard of work in the future. It will also enable me to improve my knowledge and development skills. Work Cited Anon (2006). Revising the draft. The Writing Center, University of North Carolina. Retrieved 6 December 2006 from http://www. unc. edu/depts/wcweb/handouts/revision. html

China and India Essay Example for Free

China and India Essay Classical China and India had differences and similarities in religion, society, and technology/ inventions. In China, there were 3 major religions while in India there were only two. China had three social groups in which the people were placed. India had the Caste system that included five levels. The people of Classical China invented some important items while in India, major advances in astronomy, medicine, and math were being made. Chinas religious and philosophical views were different from Indias because they had distinct faiths. Chinas major religions/ philosophies were Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism which focused on peace with the world and worship of ancestors. Indias major religions, Hinduism and Buddhism emphasized reincarnation. Although different religions, both Chinese and Indian lives were the same in that religion formed a big part of their day, whether Confucianism, Legalism, Daoism, Hinduism, or Buddhism, a lot of time was devoted to worshiping their faith. India and China both used a system of grouping people socially. Even though different methods, the people lived according to their group. Most of the religions like Hinduism, Confucianism, and Legalism accepted these social groups. Indias Caste system consisted of five levels. Moving up in a social class was nearly impossible in both China and India. In the Caste system, the people were arranged in hierarchical and patriarchal levels. On the other hand, the three social classes of China were: the landowners, the peasants, and at the bottom were the mean people. When it comes to advances in intellectuality and inventions that influenced our world today, China and India were very different. China and India were different in intellectual advances because they gradually made a move forward, but in different fields. China invented paper, a major item still used today. To help make the production of crops easier, the Chinese invented the water powered mill. Another grand advance of classical China was an accurate calendar still used in China today. While in India, they were making life changing discoveries. In astronomy, they determined the length of our solar year, they identified the seven planets, and they calculated the circumference of our planet earth. Because of infections and diseases, they developed vaccines to immunize and protect their population. Classical India also learned to sterilize wounds. India and China had different levels of thinking, but both made important discoveries that impacted the world. In conclusion, China and India were very different, yet alike in many aspects. They were different in religion, society, technology, and inventions. These differences and similarities made up the classical civilizations of India and China.

The Importance Of Intimacy And Effective Communication Theology Religion Essay

The Importance Of Intimacy And Effective Communication Theology Religion Essay The Bible gives us deep insight into the biblical principle of communication within our human relationships. God shows us in His Word that He is more concerned about understanding than He is about speaking. Paul tells us that the objective of prophecy is to build up, and if something is said that does not build up, it should not be said. Paul also instructs us about order speaking when its your turn in order to avoid confusion and to pursue peace. When God speaks to us from heaven, 1) it is decent and in order, 2) we will know what He is talking about (we have an understanding), and 3) there is a purpose behind it- to build us up! Communication is a skill! Communication is defined as taking what is inside of us and conveying it to another person. I have also heard it characterized as an exchange of sincerity. Not being able to communicate constitutes the bulk of our marital problems, which is why I decided to give this tool its own chapter. Communication is the process by which we share our thoughts, feelings, and ideas in such a way that others understand us. The goal of communication is to make things common. To do this, we define terms and reduce everything down to its common denominator. If we do not define terms and find commonality frustration will result, leading to conflict. The divorce rate in our country is greater than 60%, and research indicates that one of the biggest problems that lead to divorce is communication issues peoples inability to talk with one another This chapter is designed to help you and your partner learn the art of successful communication, whether that partner is your spouse, your friend, or your significant other. When we make things common, we have communion. When we have communion, we have community, which is belonging or relationship. Unfortunately, with the way that we currently communicate, what is meant, what is sent, what is received, and what is interpreted are different conversations! Before you begin your journey to learning successful communication, realize that this investment will take some effort! Effective communication is not for wimps! Communication is or involves: Dialogue Hard work Time consuming Reveals your perspective Requires courtesy Requires body talk Must happen at the right moment Succeeds with positive regard for the other person Getting an understanding I pray much success as the Holy Spirit guides you in your efforts to learn how to speak, listen, understand, and be understood through the art of successful communication. I also pray that you develop tolerable communication. The Importance of Intimacy and Effective Communication Intimacy is necessary for skillful communication. Intimacy is from the Latin word innimus meaning innermost. We share our innermost thoughts, opinions, feelings, and goals. When we are able to share these things with others, we can connect on another level. Reflection: Have you ever felt like you were talking about something, but the person you were speaking to never quite got what you were saying? How did it feel when you could not connect? A consequence of not being able to communicate due to a lack of intimacy is that it creates distance as opposed to the closeness that we desire from our partner. Reflection: Did you sense a distance between yourself and your partner when you did not connect? Intimacy or the ability to speak freely from your inner being is a must if there is going to be effective communication patterns in the relationship. The stage of negotiation will be ineffective if intimacy does not exist. Why? Because people will not be honest with each other; they will simply say what causes the least amount of stress and conflict. Here are five keys to intimacy the five (5) musts for intimacy: Access you must possess the ability to link spiritually, emotionally, and physically. In order to have access to your partner, your values must be compatible and in the same camp. Exercise: Does your partner share the same values that you do? List three values that you share with your partner. Availability making sure that both you and your partner are available for one another physically, spiritually, and emotionally. Do you and your spouse have a space and a time where you just chill out and talk and laugh? Is there a time for you to access each other? Exercise: Does your partner ever complain that you are not available to him/her? What practical, reasonable steps can you take to ensure that you are available to the extent that it makes your partner comfortable? Argot an inside language that you develop with your partner. No one else may know what you are talking about because this is a language specific to your relationship such that you can have a conversation in the midst of other people and they have no idea what you are talking about. Exercise: Give three examples of the types of words, phrases, or gestures used in the relational argot between you and your partner. Abandonment you have to be willing to become transparent and self-disclosing. If you are unable or unwilling to reveal yourself, you cant become intimate. Exercise: Describe an instance in the past when you or your partner revealed something about yourselves to the point where you understood him/her (or vice versa) on deeper, more intimate level. Application you must be willing to apply yourself in your relationship. Exercise: Give an example of how you might apply yourself even further towards developing a quality relationship with you partner. After having lived with a spouse for a number of years, it is apparent that the couple becomes unable to communicate in a normal, meaningful fashion. If either spouse is unable to avoid exchanges that invariably result in conflict, a communication breakdown in the marriage has occurred. In extreme cases, especially if accompanied by abusive tendencies or other symptoms of dysfunction, a growing inability to deal with any verbal exchanges without conflict could be indicative of a much more serious problem that requires the attention of a mental health professional. More often than not, however, growing differences between the spouses, which may have their roots in the above-mentioned causes, are to blame for communication breakdowns. Treatment: James 1:19-20, Ephesians 4:15, 29-32, Philippians 2:14 Do all things without complaining and disputing Failure to Communicate In any relationship, communication is essential. One needs to let the other person know what is on his or her mind. You cannot keep on second-guessing the other person. Open communication becomes critical, so misunderstanding can be minimized. Problems arise when one partner expects the other to read his or her mind you will agree with me that this is close to impossible. The following five things hinder the creation of a context of toleration of communication. Five Hindrances to Communication The Complexity of Communication Communication is not simply about peoples ability to access vocabulary words. It is a skillful exchange between two people. There are listening styles and communication styles that exist in order to help facilitate this. If your spouse is a visual communicator and you are auditory, saying I love you will never reach them as much as actually seeing a symbol of your love, such as flowers, a card, a nice gift, etc. Many times, we are talking the wrong language to our spouse. Low Self-Esteem If you have low self-esteem, you will not talk, because you feel that what you have to say is not important. At some point in time, you will talk, but that time you may explode. You must learn to value your feelings enough to share them with your spouse. Understand that your unwillingness to share your thoughts can destroy the future of the relationship. Fear of Criticism and Judgment Some people live in fear that what they say may be interpreted in a way that they did not intend, or they are unwilling to allow their words to be potentially judged or criticized negatively. Rather than risk this potentially negative backlash or misunderstanding, they can be hesitant to communicate clearly with sincerity and with honesty. Lack of Knowledge of Internal Happiness You really do not understand what is going on inside yourself, so you are unable to put your true feelings into words. Thus, your words and what is going on inside of you are totally disconnected, and you feel unfulfilled. Inability to Put Thoughts and Feelings into Words Some people put thoughts and feelings into actions, such as being mean, slamming doors, withholding physical intimacy, and name-calling, because they are unable to verbally communicate exactly how they feel. If you can be comfortable without any talking with your significant other, there is something wrong and dysfunctional with your relationship. Exercise: Choose the hindrance that most affects communication within your relationship and then list two alternatives to overcoming those hindrances. Communication involves talking with objectives and the following are the objectives behind talking. Determine which ones you are trying to achieve when talking with your spouse. Information Talking informs you or makes you aware of something you do not know. We must talk in order for others to understand us. We cannot expect others to know what we are thinking or feeling. Some people tend to say, He should ALREADY know! But this is not the case. Simply because we articulate what we want over and over does not mean that our partner gets the message. Revelation Information is based on words; however, the basis for revelation is self. Revelation is the self-disclosure behind the words. The objective of communication is not just words, because words are inadequate to holistically explain what we are trying to say. Communication There is a difference between talking and communicating. Communication is the process by which we share our thoughts, feelings, and ideas in such a way that others understand us. The goal of communication is to make things common. To do this, we define terms and reduce everything down to its common denominator. If we do not define terms and find commonality, frustration will result, leading to conflict. Exercise: Pick one issue or need that you feel your partner has not responded to in ways that satisfies you, and answer the following questions regarding this issue: Have I fully expressed to my partner what it is I want? Yes No Have I revealed to my partner what it is I want? Yes No When I expressed these issues and revealed myself to my partner, based upon the definition of communication, was I simply talking or were we truly communicating? How can I more effectively communicate this particular need to my partner? The 5 Levels of Communication There are, what I refer to as, five levels of communication that at some level are correlated with the objectives of talking, but differ due to the emotional involvement in communication vs. talking. Level 1 Clichà © Shallow level of communication we use when talking with strangers. We dont talk about anything of significance because we are not trying to relate. Level 2 Reporting Facts A simple exchange of data. This occurs frequently in relationships, as people may simply report the details of their day to one another. A husband and wife may talk about the kids, what happened on their jobs during the work day, whats for dinner, and what bills need to be paid, rather than anything on a deeper level. Level 3 Sharing of Ideas and Opinions This is the first level of risk communication, because it taps into the core of who we are. On this level, we risk possible conflict and/or rejection that may result from disagreement. What if your partner shares his/her ideas or opinions about this and you do not agree? For this reason, most people stay away from this level and stick to Level 2. Many couples have tried this level and found it to be too challenging. Level 4 Revealing Emotions This level of risk is the I feel level where you communicate your joys and sorrows to your partner. The problem with this level is that if a woman communicates her emotions to a man, he will tend to blame himself for causing the woman to feel this way. Rather than hear the emotions of the woman, the man may move into a posture of defense that might thrust him into warfare. People may not mind communicating the joyful emotions on this level, but they often do not like to communicate negative emotions on this level. Level 5 Complete Disclosure -The riskiest, but most rewarding level of intimacy, is the unrestrained, honest sharing of ones innermost desires, whether they are popular or not to a partner The partner, in response to the sharing of emotions on this level, will then respond in a loving, accepting way that acknowledges the problem and assists their partner in resolving the problem Exercise: Complete the following chart regarding your relationships communication style. For each level of your relationship, write down you and your partners level of communication at that particular point in time. Check only those relationship levels that apply to your own relationship and skip the levels that do not apply. Relationship Level Communication Level When you first met your partner One year after you met your partner The day you married your partner One year after the birth of your first child Five years into your marriage Ten years into your marriage Your relationship today If you noticed a change in the level of communication, to what might you attribute this change? At what level would you like your communication with your partner to be? If we want to have a tolerable relationship that is healthy, we must be attentive to our communication style. Sometimes we engage in negative communication styles beyond our own consciousness. Virginia Satir offers a model that accentuates what she refers to as the four styles of communication. Four Negative Communication Styles Placater The Yes person who tries to avoid conflict at any cost. Blaming The fault finder who tries to find fault in your argument or something he/she can be critical of in an argument Computing The Cool, Calm, Collected, and Correct person who is always right. They never get excited or emotional, because they know they are right. During their turn in the conversation, they will explain to you all of the facts. They tend to believe that their partner has lost the facts in all of their emotion. Distracting The person who changes topics like crazy because the conversation becomes too conflicting, personal, and intimidating. Circle the Communication Style that best describes YOU: a. Placater b. Blaming c. Computing d. Distracting Circle the Communication Style that best describes your PARTNER: a. Placater b. Blaming c. Computing d. Distracting How do you think either of your negative communication styles has impacted the communication in your relationship? Communication Styles Characterized by Animals Shark The Competitor Gets what they want no matter what it takes by shouting, sulking, withholding physical intimacy whatever works. This type does not mind having disharmony in the home. Bear The Accommodator Keeps peace at any cost Fox The Negotiator Specialist in compromise such that everyone wins a little and everyone loses a little. Both Bear and Fox tend to walk away half-pleased. Turtle The Avoider Pretends that problems do not exit in the relationship. Their partner tends to be the shark-style communicator. This person feels conflict, so he/she becomes passive and withdrawn. Some people think they have happy marriages, because they are married to turtles. The Owl The Collaborator The win-win person who will try to get a resolution for all. Tends to operate with wisdom. Exercise: List the potential strengths and weakness of your animal-type communication style and that of your partner. Communication and Non-Verbals Communication is more than the words you speak. Communication encompasses what you say, how you say it, and how your body is reacting to what you are saying. Research shows that communication is: 7% Words 24% Tonality 69 Body Language and Expressions Reflection: What would happen if your partner shouted to you, I AM interested in what you are saying! while turning away from you to intently watching his/her favorite show on the television? Would you believe the words that he/she was communicating? The tonality and the non-verbals would outweigh the words that were spoken. Key Dynamics of Communication Listening is one of the most important functions of communication there is. If both people are slow to listen and quick to speak, there will be chaos and lack of communication because there will be no understanding. There is a difference between HEARING and LlSTENING! Hearing the auditory reception of sound Listening the ability to hear, interpret, and understand Exercise: Give an example of how your partner may have heard something you said rather than listen to what you said: Listening involves commitment! A commitment to understand, empathize, to put aside ones own interests and prejudices long enough to see the relationship through the eyes of the other person. The goal of listening is to understand, learn, and enjoy helping. Listening involves compliment! Because our partner listens, we tend to feel that we matter. Roadblocks to Listening Most men dread hearing the words, Can I talk to you about something? or We need to talk. They tend to ask themselves, What did I do now? They dread that they will now have to engage in an activity that so many of us are unprepared for the art of intentional listening. The following are roadblocks to listening in which many of us engage in with our relationships: Mindreading ignoring what is being said while trying to figure out what is meant. In other words, ignoring the obvious in favor of the imaginary Rehearsing preparing what is going to be said. You cannot listen you are trying to get your argument together against your partner Filtering keeping the things that you do want to hear or that you do agree with and blocking out all you do not want to hear Judging Listening to criticize, to judge, and to find blame Daydreaming not paying attention or tuning the other person out Advising jumping in to try to fix the problem with a solution rather than hear what the person is saying. Just because your partner has a problem does not mean that he/see wants you to fix it all of the time! Exercise: Evaluate the following scenario. Jesse is listening to his wife complain once again about the gas tank of their car being left on empty after he has driven it all weekend. As his wife proceeds to give him a play-by-play of who drove the car that weekend and when and where it was driven, he is trying to pinpoint in his mind exactly who should have stopped to fill the cars tank rather than hearing his wifes issue. After she finishes, he has already concluded whose fault this whole issue was, deciding actually it was her fault. Which roadblock is Jesse employing? a. Mindreading b. Rehearsing c. Filtering d. Judging e. Daydreaming f. Advising Dynamics of Active Listening Step 1: Pay Attention. Listen without any roadblocks. Step 2: Paraphrase. Restate your understanding of what your partner has spoken to you. Step 3: Clarify. Your partner comes back with what he/she actually meant if you did not get the intended message. Step 4: Collect Yourself and Get Feedback. The feedback should address what you just clarified with your partner. Deal with the facts on the floor and respond with what you feel about what was communicated. The goal of communication is not agreement or convincing your partner. Rather, the goal of communication is to be heard and understood! Exercise: Choose a neutral topic to discuss with your partner, and allow your partner to practice utilizing the four Dynamics of Active Listening while you explain your topic. After you have had your turn, allow your partner to use the same exercise. Write down the results of how this exercise transpired and how active listening made each of you feel. Very few people actually make contact in communication, i.e., two people ending up at the same place, knowing where they are when they get there. We tend to be on different frequencies when we communicate, and thus never end up on the same channel. Everyone wants to grow close with their partner, but when people realize how difficult this is through communication, they tend to shy away from this type of relational intimacy and decided not connect on a deeper level. Communication allows our partners to know us, who we are, and how we think or feel. We want them to enter our world of feelings so that we can enhance them, support them, help them, or simply enjoy them. Expression of oneself is the ability to give voice to ones emotional feelings. The only way to do this is through the process of self-awareness. Youve got to learn how you feel and what it is that you are feeling and then put a voice to it so that the other person can understand it. If you find yourself constantly saying, You dont ever listen to me, you might consider asking the question, Am I listening to myself?, because you might be communicating the wrong way. The Pillars of Communication The following charts are exercises to begin learning about you so you can clearly articulate your issues. Pillar #1: How to Express Yourself Prepare to Talk Step Task 1 Identify what it is you feel (Is it a good or bad feeling?) 2 Ask yourself, How important is this feeling to me? (Is it really important enough to talk about?) 3 What is the feeling saying to me? (Something positive, negative, affirming, etc.) 4 What do I want to do about this feeling? (What do I want or expect to happen?) 5 What past experience does this feeling remind me of? (Have I ever felt this before?) 6 Name your feeling (annoyed, happy, sad, playful, jealous, etc. you cannot explain it you if you cannot name it!) 7 Define the word for the feeling in terms of intensity (Very, a little, not at all) 8 Define the word or feeling in terms of duration (How long youve held the feeling?) 9 Define the feeling in cause and context (When the feeling came, where were you were, and in what context?) 10 Define the feeling in terms of its historical context (Have you ever felt this way at another stage in your life? Pillar #2; Scripting Your Needs Planning in Advance How to Ask for what you want Step Task 1 Say exactly what you mean 2 Send the message effectively by using the right words and action 3 Obey the 10 Commandments of Clean Communication 10 Commandments of Clean Communication Commandment 1 Avoid Judgment Words and Loaded Terms (Words that communicate your partner is flawed, incorrect, and in error) Commandment 2 Avoid Global Labels (Stay away from generalizations and name-calling, as this will shut down communication) Commandment 3 Avoid You Messages of Blame and Accusation (Stay away from always and never, and use I rather than You statements when talking about your feelings) Commandment 4 Avoid Old History (Stick to the issue at hand and discuss one issue at a time) Commandment 5 Avoid Negative Comparison. (Dont ask, Why cant you be like Frank?) Commandment 6 Avoid Threats (Threats bring insecurity in a relationship and causes people to be less self-disclosing with you) Commandment 7 Describe your feelings rather than attacking with them. (Your goal is not to make your partner feel bad, but to express how you feel) Commandment 8 Keep Body Language Open and Receptive (You speak louder with your body than with your words) Commandment 9 Use Whole Messages (Use your thoughts, your feelings, and your emotions) Commandment 10 Use Clear Messages (Make sure youre specific, and do not ask loaded questions of your partner) Exercise: Complete the following exercise by listing which commandments the following statements are violating (some may violate more than one). Statement Commandment Violated You have the biggest stomach in the whole class. Why cant you lose weight? You have one more time to hang the telephone up on me before I walk out for good! I wish I would have known that you were this stubborn before I married you! I am very upset about the way you treated me yesterday. Why did you totally ignore me? This is just like when you almost had an affair three years ago. Youve never changed! I can listen and do my paperwork at the same time. My hands are occupied, not my ears! Sometimes I think that you dont like me anymore. Thats all I have to say. Well, maybe if you werent so uneducated, you wouldnt be so closed-minded! You always decide to call one of your friends on the phone when I say we have an issue to resolve! Yes, I am jealous, and its all your fault! You dont have to hug people like that in front of me! How to Communicate with Your Body The following are steps that you and your partner can exercise to communicate more effectively with your body language: Maintain Eye Contact Lean in Close to the Person Nod and Give Short Verbal Affirmations Smile or Frown, Whichever is Appropriate Keep Your Posture Open. Arms Unfolded, Towards Your Partner Actively Move Away From Distractions Exercise: Evaluate the following scenario: Lynn certainly thinks that she looks like she is listening to her partner. She is seated in a comfortable chair, leaning forward with her arms unfolded, and she is making direct eye contact with him. However, she is neither nodding nor shaking her head, she says nothing, and her face is expressionless. Even further, when her partner finishes talking, Lynn remains in her same posture, gazing intently at him, but not saying a word. Her partner thinks that she is in a daze. What is Lynn communicating to her partner with her body? Brethren, if a man is overtaken in any trespass, you who [are] spiritual restore such a one in a spirit of gentleness, considering yourself lest you also be tempted. Galatians 6:1 Sometimes you are talking to someone who hurt you, but you have to be eager to restore the relationship. However, if the goal of communication is not restoration, there really is no need to talk. There are certain parameters to fair communication that each partner in a relationship should employ. Dos and Donts of Communication Donts Be judgmental Expect too much from one session Bring up your mates past Butt in or be rude Overstate by saying you a1ways or You never Lose your temper Pout or give the silent treatment Tell endless stories Compete Think in terms of winning and losing Belittle your male Dos Be accepting and tolerant Plan to talk again Be forgiving Be courteous as to a stranger Be accurate by saying Sometimes, Many times, To me it seems Be in control of yourself Be positive, outgoing. and unselfish even when you dont feel like it Be concise See yourself as an equal partner Be cooperative and not combative Be affirming and build up your mate Exercise: Choose three Dos listed and list the possible positive consequences of the chosen behavior. Then, choose three Donts listed above and list the possible negative consequences of the chosen behavior. Difference in the Way Men and Women Communicate There are a number of differences between the communication styles of men and women. For example, you have a 96% chance of the conversation continuing when the man initiates it, and yet, you have only a 36% chance of the conversation continuing when a woman initiates it. Also, because men have a larger ego, this ego drives a mans awareness of what is received and what is blocked out in communication. Differences do not have to hinder our communication if we acknowledge, understand, accept, and learn to work with them. Men and women must have positive regard for the differences that exist between them. Men Women Focus on achievement Focus on relationship Focus on solving problems with the facts Like to share their feelings Need an agenda when communicating Tend to use intense adjectives Tend to interrupt more Tend to be more descriptive in conversation Talk more in public settings than they do in private Tend to talk more in small groups Talk loudly and tell lots of stories Talk more quietly with focuses on fewer topics Talk about reports Talk about rapport Assume you are sharing what you want revealed Ask a lot of questions Tend to be competitive in their dialogue Tend to be cooperative Tend to be exclusive Tend to be inclusive Information Intuition Listen for whats important Listen for details Need time to process their thoughts and feelings Process immediately Say women are too emotional Say men are not sensitive enough Say women talk too much Say men dont listen How God Broke Down Differences to Communicate with Humanity The incarnation was a divine example of communication that transcended differences. In John 1, the incarnation taught us that communication has to be reflective. The Word accurately described what God was feeling. The word God spoke was so reflective of God that it was God Himself. We have to take time to come up with the words that accurately reflect what i